Great civilisations rise and leave their mark on history long after they fall. Some vanish – and that, mysteriously. Throughout human history, some great and powerful civilisations did not end in war or economic collapse – they simply vanished. They leave behind ruins, artefacts, and questions that modern scholars and explorers continue to solve.

ASIA
The Indus Valley Civilisation

Working sewage systems in 3000 BC? Indeed, and possibly from as early as 3300 BC. Located in what is now Pakistan and northwest India, the Indus Valley Civilisation was one of the world’s earliest urban cultures. Known for its advanced cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, it had a well-planned grid system, complex drainage systems, and evidence of early forms of writing. The civilisation mysteriously declined around 1300 BCE. There is speculation as to why it vanished, but no consensus. Shifts in river patterns, or invasions are cited as possible reasons… but those are guesses, at best. Despite extensive archaeological discoveries, much about this civilisation, including its language, remains undeciphered.

The Khmer Empire

The Khmer Empire, based in modern-day Cambodia, was one of Southeast Asia’s most powerful civilisations. The empire’s capital, Angkor, became one of the largest urban centres of its time, and the construction of temples like Angkor Wat remains a testament to its architectural and cultural prowess. To this day, it remains the world’s largest religious structure – four times the size of the Vatican – built in the 12th Century in the middle of unforgiving jungle. At its height, it could somehow sustain 150,000 people. The Khmer Empire declined around the 15th century.

MIDDLE EAST
The Nabataean Civilisation

The Nabataeans were an ancient Arab people who controlled the trade routes across the Arabian Desert and established the famous city of Petra (in modern-day Jordan). Petra, with its stunning rock-cut architecture, was at the heart of a vast trading empire that connected the Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula. We actually do know what initiated their decline – another civilisation, the Roman Empire, annexed them. But several civilisations were controlled by the Romans, and many survived. The Nabataean civilisation, which began around 400 BC thrived until it was annexed by the Roman Empire in 106 CE, after which it gradually declined. While their society faded, their architectural achievements, particularly Petra, have immortalised their legacy.

PACIFIC
The Easter Island Civilisation

The Polynesian civilisation of Rapa Nui, located on Easter Island, flourished between 1600 BC and 1200 AD is famous for its giant stone statues, or Moai, which were carved to honour ancestors and leaders. These statues, along with the island’s complex society, represent one of the greatest achievements of Polynesian culture. However, by the 17th century, the island’s civilisation had collapsed, most likely due to over-farming.

THE AMERICAS
The Maya Civilisation

The Maya civilisation, which flourished in present-day Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, was one of Mesoamerica’s most sophisticated societies. The Maya are best known for their advancements in astronomy, mathematics, and writing, as well as for their grand pyramids and ceremonial complexes like Tikal and Palenque. Around the 9th century, many of the Maya cities were abandoned during the “Maya collapse.” Not destroyed, nor conquered… just abandoned. Again, the reasons for this are still debated but likely involve a combination of environmental factors, warfare, and resource depletion.

While the Maya civilisation technically survived into the 16th century, much of its classic culture had already vanished by the time the Spanish arrived.

The Ancestral Puebloans

The Ancestral Puebloans (formerly known as the Anasazi) inhabited the American Southwest and are known for their unique cliff dwellings and multi-storied stone villages, like those found at Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon. Their society thrived for centuries, developing a complex culture with advanced agricultural techniques. However, around 1300 CE, the civilisation largely abandoned its cities. It is notable that the same potential reasons are always cited, regardless of where and when the vanished civilisations were based, and how those reasons tend to mirror contemporary frustrations or problems. There was some evidence of cannibalism in the society, but this is controversial and dismissed by some. The descendants of the Ancestral Puebloans are believed to be modern-day Pueblo peoples.

The Olmec Civilisation

Often considered the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, the Olmec civilisation laid the foundation for later societies like the Maya and Aztec. Centred in the tropical lowlands of southern Mexico, the Olmecs, who emerged around 1500 BC are renowned for their massive stone heads, believed to depict rulers or gods, and for their advancements in art, mathematics, and early forms of writing. By around 400 BC, the major Olmec cities were abandoned, and the civilisation mysteriously declined. The exact cause of their collapse is unknown.

The Mississippian Civilisation

The Mississippian culture was a mound-building civilisation that spread across much of the southeastern United States between 1600 BC to 800 AD. Its largest city, Cahokia, located near present-day St. Louis, was a sprawling urban centre and home to tens of thousands of people at its peak. The Mississippians engaged in extensive trade, built complex societies, and developed sophisticated agricultural systems. By the 1600s, however, the civilisation had largely disappeared.

EUROPE
The Minoan Civilisation

Centred on the island of Crete, the Minoans are often considered the first advanced civilisation in Europe – beginning around 3000 BC. They were famous for their elaborate palaces, especially the Palace of Knossos, as well as their art, trade networks, and a writing system known as Linear A (still undeciphered). The Minoan civilisation mysteriously disappeared around 1100 BCE. Some scholars suggest that a massive volcanic eruption on the nearby island of Thera (modern-day Santorini) triggered a series of earthquakes and tsunamis that destabilized the society, leading to its eventual collapse. Once again, however, this is speculation. An entire empire, leaving behind a track record of civilisation lasting thousands of years, does not simply cease to exist because a volcano erupted.

The Mycenaean Civilisation

The Mycenaeans were the first advanced civilisation on mainland Greece, credited with many aspects of Greek culture, including religious practices, architectural styles, and the epic poems of Homer, which recount the Mycenaean exploits during the Trojan War. The Mycenaean civilisation collapsed around 1100 BC after surviving 500 years, during a period of widespread instability in the Eastern Mediterranean known as the Bronze Age collapse. The reasons for the collapse are still debated but may involve invasions by the so-called “Sea Peoples,” internal strife, and natural disasters.